Howa Machinery was founded in 1907 and is celebrating 100 years of service. Howa has always maintained a great reputation for making good rifles, and the 1500 Series is no exception. To study the Howa rifles you must first start by studying the company itself, and then you can look at the many versions of the Howa 1500.

In 1907, Toyoda’s Loom Works, LTD. was created. Toyoda’s Loom Works manufactured and sold textile sewing looms. As the company grew, they started manufacturing spinning machinery. In 1916, Toyoda’s Loom Works officially commenced the manufacturing of the spinning machinery followed by the manufacturing of cast steel in 1935. In 1941, Toyoda’s Loom Works merged with Showa Heavy Industries, Ltd., a manufacturer of machine tools. The company became Howa Heavy Industries, Ltd. Four years later the name was changed to what is still known as Howa Machinery LTD.

Over the years Howa Machinery began manufacturing air chucks, pneumatic equipment, floor scrubbers, aluminum sound-proof windows, rodless cylinders, and vertical double-sided exposure systems for printed circuit boards. In 2000, Howa acquired the ISO 9001 certification in the machine tool accessories and firearms divisions.

Howa is best known for their Howa Rifles. The Howa rifle outshoots well-known rifles costing hundreds more than the Howa 1500 rifle. Howa firearms are known to be the most accurate rifle right out of the box. Ideal for hunting, target shooting, or plinking, the Howa M-1500 rifles, give you the Howa accuracy you are looking for. Featuring rugged durability and dependable quality craftsmanship, the Howa 1500 rifle is built to get the job done.

The two Howa rifles that I find to be their best are the Howa 1500 combo package and the Howa 1500 Sporting Rifle. The Howa/Knoxx Axiom 1500 Combo Package Rifle comes with a Nikko Platinum 4-16 x 44 scope and is a great rifle at a great price. This rifle combines the integrity success of the Howa 1500 Rifle with the proven Knoxx Industries Axiom V/S rifle stock and the Nikko platinum 4-16 x 44 scope. Chambered in a 223 Remington caliber with a 24-inch heavy barrel and adjustable length of pull from 11.5 inches to 15.5 inches, the Howa 1500 rifle Knoxx Axiom Combo package is a huge value to any hunter or target shooter.

The second rifle I found to be a great value was the Howa 1500 Sporting Rifle. It is a good looking rifle, with its nutmeg wood thumbhole stock. The Howa 1500 Sporting Rifle features a flared pistol grip and scalloped thumbhole that ensures a comfortable grip and precise trigger control. A 24-inch barrel and blue steel finish complete the professional camouflage look of this useful rifle. Chambered in 300 Winchester Magnum and featuring a three-position safety and 8.4 pound weight, the Howa 1500 Rifle is going to give you that Howa accuracy and dependability you are looking for.

With over 100 years of service, Howa has the experience and history to manufacture a great product. So, after exploring just two of the many Howa 1500 rifles, I ask: Howa, underrated or just unknown? For more information visit http://www.Howa1500.com.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/sports-and-fitness-articles/the-untold-history-of-the-howa-1500-rifle-386495.html

About the Author

Jeff Tilkens is a firearms specialist for the largest online firearms dealer in the country.
www.Howa1500.com

Crop Damage by Wild Animals

section i general discussions

G.M. Wani

Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany)

FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD

Director Extension Education / SAMETI

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir

Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121

 

 

 

A brief global review to asses the damage caused to cultivated crops by wild animals around the world. The review was attempted in response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional Committee No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at Solan, H.p. presided over by Hon’ble Director General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai inauguration was chaired by Hon’ble Agriculture Minister J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar.

                                                                Author

 

                                   

 

 

 

Published by:  Director State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute of Kashmir (SAMETI-K) , SKUAST-K , Shalimar , Post Box: 461, G.P.O, Srinagar.

 

 

                     Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000/January, 2008

 

 

 

P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Wanimohyuddin@yahoo.com

          Phone:       0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459 

          Cell:         09419095342 ; Residence:0194-2431508,2435741

 

 

 

Introduction:

 

       Wild animal-human conflicts have started since beginning of human era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of wilderness made man to hide in caves and he was called as “Cave man”. Slowly, with his advancement it is he who invented Axe and other weapon in stone and iron ages to frighten the wild animals, initially. Later on he hunted them to save himself. This feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild animals and wilderness reduced with the invention of fire. He made sharp weapons of bones and iron. These initial weapons were the beginning of this conflict, Animal human conflict.

Thirty thousand years ago, the human population rose to 6 million. They were still hunters. With the invention of fire, he set fire a vast majority of sanctuaries, which scared wild life and they migrated from his neighborhood. Many forests, hills and difficult terrains were still beyond the reach of man three thousand years before, although human population has increased to 60 million. Man has already started primitive agriculture. He had made his terrains and wild life scared by him left his close habitats and searched for fresh abodes. Man by now had lust for fur, horns, ornaments and other forest resources. He invented many means to frighten whole wild life. He became a “Danger “not only for wild animals but for his own species, environment and eco-biodiversity.

Three hundred years ago he industrialized crop production and produced enough food, for nearly 600 million people. This continued and from 30 year now he is feeding 6000 million people. Today we have a global food security for 7.5 billion. Human food security gains resulted in reduction of all other wild species, thus, the origin of wild- life- human conflict is the lust of man for more food, more luxury or sometimes fun for hunting or fur. This reduced wild life reserves and now a open conflict came into existence.

Many man-wild life conflicts have been reported from Gir forests of Gujarat, Rajaji National Park in UP and many other states where forest lands became cultivable lands. Elephants, wild boars, monkeys, squirrels, deer , birds like crows, parakeets, wild dogs, jackals, gaur, sambur, langure, fowls, pea cocks, neilgai, Hippos, biats, blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, feral species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, feral hogs and a variety of other species damage crops. The carnivores even attack human too. These attacks are for search of food or their loss of habitat. Many such accidents came to be known in Jammu and Kashmir. The bear leopod and other wild animals are reducing in number. Their habitats used by human.

The human causalities are due to carnivorous species, but herbivores inflict economic and human losses too. The crop damages by wild life has been the new threat to agricultural productivity throughout the world. This also concerns us in Asia and India. This review is aimed to find out:

1.       Extent of damage to crops.

2.       Nature of crop damage

3.       Ways and means to prevent these losses.

4.       A strategic planning to drive a line between wildlife conservation and farm economics especially in India.

 

Executive Abstracts and Strategic elementaries: [EASE]

1.     Importance

                   Species causing crop damages ranges from elephant’s wild birds, monkeys, squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, foxes, deer and many others like Neilgai. On an average this damage to crops by wild animals amounts to U$ 961 per hectare. It is much more than an Indian Farmer earns from a hacter annually. Therefore, by these estimates, the damages are spectacular and economically important.

2.       Human Elephant conflicts (HEC):

          i) Economic Losses:

                   Among elephants crop raiding is common. The crops near their home ranges are damaged more. Elephants damaging crops had twice big ranges than those who did not damage the crops. Thus, more proximity of the crops near their ranges are prone to crops damages. Train accidents instigate elephants more to crop or human damages. Indonesia saw more frequent raids of elephants on crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is frequent and poses serious challenges in Africa. Both male groups and family group attacks have been observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were worth 3.2 croses of Rupees. This damage occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical number of elephants was 62 only. Assam observes damages to the woodcutters by elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and damage crops in herds of 10-13 individuals or big herds comprising 50-74 elephants. In Darjeeling district alone over an area of 200 kms. East to west, in last two decades 277 houses were demolished by elephants, killing 66 people in 5 districts. As a result of this conflict 23 elephants lost their lives. In 2001, economic loss of the order of US fifty thousand dollars was estimated to be inflicted by elephants. This scenario necessitates comprehensive measures to be taken to lessen these damage. The review of the measures, around the world suggest following few studies to be undertaken and resultant measures to be applied to lessen these damages.

ii)     Mitigation of losses:

          Methods developed and used to mitigate crop damages by elephants consisted of frightening of animals by drum beating, firegracks or even air gun fires. Guarding the crops by fences or even using electric fencing or raising poles and wiring may be effective. Chemical based deterrents, and electric fencing have been found to reduce crop damages. High voltage electric fencing using energizers in west have prevented wild animals damaging crop but this preposition may not be applicable in areas where even habitations do not have access to electricity. However, this method may act as a temporary boundary separating wild and domestic habitats. This could prevent intrusions from sly vatic to domestic foci. Guarding fields, digging trenches, modifying cropping patterns have a possibility of reducing man elephant conflicts or Human elephant conflicts. A 30% open space between two habitats may help to avoid HEC. This means a distance to be maintained between cropping fields and elephant habitates. A proper investigation on these lines is needed. A grid based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25Km2 resolution may help to have cost effective data source to analyze these situations. There is urgent need of identifying spatial predictors of HEC. On the basis of this study one can suggest or plan mitigation strategies, early warnings of attacks, use of barriers and deterrents. The utility of the methods could be assessed for land use and livelihood strategies to limit HEC.

 

3.       Dear-Nilgai Damages.

          A survey of 2500 farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) cereal crops were damaged by deer. This damage costed £500 per annum per farm. Damages varied with deer density. In USA too deer damages comprised of crop loss, landscape damages, car accidents and property damages. Nilgai damages alongwith deer damages are common in India too. Tree cover of Acacia in the area is generally used as shelter by Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop damage in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area by Nilgai visits. Grazing and browsing of Nilgai inflict losses on farms. This is regarded as a mammalian crop threat by the farmers. This behaviour of their inflict ozone injury to the young sapling, so precious for the growth of trees in Indian semi-arid farms.

 

          Corn damages by deer in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare on an average 55 hectares were used to sow corn. There is a 6.6% loss of the product which is a huge economic loss. Similar damages by deer in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America and other parts of the world have been reviewed. In Virginia too a study involving 1506 agricultural producer farmers revealed 58% of them experiencing deer damages. Ways and means to prevent such attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of the possible measures to be adopted are similar to these described for elephants (HEC).

 

4.    Other Mammal and bird damages

 

          Monkey damages maize, sweet potato and other crops. It is suggested to reduce or change cropping pattern or alternating with non-agricultural activities near location of monkey habitats. Various methods are reviewed. Bat damage, Hygo crop damages in Japan, Grape wine damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India have been studied. Crop economic loss assessment has been reviewed in these pages. Clover rather than grass can reduce wild mammal damages. Alley cropping of black walnuts helped to save soyabean and maize crop damages. Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize their attacks, enclosures and other electric fencing help to avoid such damage. Can one use harmful means to save crops, need a suitable strategy to preserve ecology and biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals need security and conservation. A management strategy is needed to safeguard human and wildlife equally.  A policy framework is envisaged.

 

          Blackbird crop damage in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. A considerable sum of crores of rupees have been estimated to be damages in the form of crop, human and property losses by wild animals, birds and other rodents in India. Many measures to reduce these losses are needed and have been reviewed.

 

 

 

 

 

Review

1. Wild animals damaging crops

To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog are wild animals damaging crops.

Methods developed and being used to mitigate man-wildlife conflict include, frightening the animals; guarding the crops; and using some sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).

Accurate estimation of crop damage by wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer, and coyotes) often requires labour-intensive sampling procedure. Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been identified as a potential labour-saving alternative to quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002).

 

2. Wild life Human conflicts

Agricultural landowners suffer in the form of damage to crops, livestock, and other property. Some wildlife agencies maintained abatement and compensation programmes. A model of deer-inflicted crop damage used to facilitate agency decisions regarding deer densities and distribution, abatement use, and to forecast compensation. The model is applied to field-level compensation claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent with theory, ( Yoder J, 2002).

 

3.  Crop Economic loss due to wild life

          People’s perceptions were discerned through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed in 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of local people were substantially reduced through policy interventions set in since 1860s. Local people as well as tourists have been excluded from the core zone covering an area of 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of rural economy due to damage to crop and livestock by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of income from wild medicinal plant resources and tourism in the core zone were the key negative impacts of conservation policy felt by more than 90% of respondents. Mean annual economic loss per household was estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs. 1587  due to ban on collection of wild medicinal plants for marketing and Rs.7904 due to ban on tourism in the core zone. The Reserve authority granted compensation for livestock killed by wildlife but it was hardly 5% of the market value of killed livestock as assessed by the people. People did not appreciate much the present benefits from the reserve management in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation for livestock depredation and availability of solar power devices, wool, and spinning devices. Approximately 95% respondents identified empowerment of local people in respect of realizing income from timber from dead/diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in buffer zone and opening of the core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improvement in rural economy, the prime concern of local people, has not received as much attention as legal enforcement of protection by the reserve management. There is a need for developing policies and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people together with enhancement of environment conservation goal (Maikhuri et al 2001).

 

4.  Crop selection:

Damage was less (34%) in experimental carrot as multiple crop than  carrots as only crop planted (62% damage). Staggered plantings of canola, which continuously produced flowers, was the most effective lure crop of the green manure crops we tested. Carrot producers should use electric fences or 2.4-m woven wire fences, perhaps combined with staggered canola plantings, to reduce carrot depredations ( Schwab et al 2001).

          The colver, rather than fertilized grass, is more effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage by migratory geese. The sward should be managed to encourage clover growth, which would probably involve frequent cutting but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on clover replenishment rate over the winter season and possible benefits of clover leys to other wild life (McKay et al 2001). Alley cropping of black walnuts and percent with maize and soyabean rotations may avoid will animal damages. Tree –crop ratio of 1:10 may help( Godsey, 2000).

 

5.  Elephan- human conflicts:

Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) and human occur in Rajaji National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven reserves designated in India, to conserve Asian elephants. Elephant-human. The conflicts in RNP from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all human and elephant deaths or injuries caused by conflict were recorded. The impact of human colonies on elephant movement was studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the sourthern boundary of the study site and 4 village in the Chilla-Motichur corridor. Three male and four female elephants were radio tracked for 1-2 years. Primary conflicts included crop raiding, competition between humans and elephants for vegetation, and elephant mortality due to train accidents. Adult males that raided crops had home ranges twice as large as adult males that did not raid crops. Elephants only damaged crop of fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field trails of chemical based deterrents and electric fencing should be tried to reduce crop damage. Train speeds need to be reduced to prevent accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).

 

Wild Elephant damages:

          A rapid village and field assessments, data survey showed. Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency of crop raiding was related to vegetation type along the park border, the size and presence of rivers, and the distance to the park’s Elephant Training Centre (ETC), which houses about 150 captive elephants. Wild elephants damaged at least 450000  m2 of maize, rice, cassava, beans and other annual crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana and other perennial trees in the area surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24 .Villagers try to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields, digging trenches between the park and their fields, and modifying their cropping patterns. Elephants-human conflict decreases the probability of support from local people for conservation efforts. The approaches are suggested consist of elephant trenches, electric fences, external support to affected villages, and compensation to villagers for any damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000).

          This study explores land use conflict in south east Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of household surveys conducted with farmers and herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes in land management strategies are compared. The conflict reflects ongoing competition over access to scarce land and water resources between herding, farming and wildlife are the reason of damage of crops. This man-animal conflict needs understanding the conditions that have created the present conflicts (Compbell et al 2000).

It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open space be used as a basic division for stratifying thickets into low –use and high-use categories for deer density estimation. The proportions of each type could be derived from grid-square measurements of aerial photographs (Latham J 2000).

 

 

Human elephant conflict

          Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever these two species coincide, and poses serious challenges to wild life managers, local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires a details understanding of underlying patterns and processes. Although temporal patterns of HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown few universal trends, making it difficult to predict where conflict will take place. Crop raiding was further subdivided into incidents involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively fine-resolution, systematic, grid –based method was used to assign the locations of conflict incidents, and spatial relations with underlying variables were explored using correlation analysis and logistic regression. Crop raiding was clustered into distinct conflict zones. Both occurrence and intensity could be predicted on the basis of the area under cultivation and, for male elephant groups, proximity to major settlement. Conversely, incidents human injury and death were less predictable but were correlated with proximity to roads. A grid-based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution utilizing cost-effective data source, combined with simple statistical  tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC, At finer resolutions spatial autocorrelation compromised the analyses. Synthesis and application. These results suggest that spatial correlates of HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex of the elephants involved. Moreover, the method described here is fully transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. Using these results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment of appropriate conflict mitigation strategies, such as guarding, early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The utility of such methods and their strategic deployment should be assessed alongside alternative land-use and livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati et al 2003).

          Human elephant conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This much damage occurred in 3368 sq km radius inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002)

 

6.   Kerala Survey

Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, India, was studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were collected from the offices of the Kerala Forest Department, field survey and from the intensive study area at Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five species of crops were destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the species commonly destroyed by wild animals were paddy, coconut plam , plantains , cassava , arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper , jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main animals involved in crop damage were elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate), common langur (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo cristatus). Among these, elephants and  wild board gave maximum damage . Of the total compensation claimed by the farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by the Kerala Forest Department. The highest crop damage (30%) was recorded from the forest ranges coming under the Northern Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet potato (47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) , beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded highest percentage of damage. In the intensive study area at Marayur, 28 species of crops were damaged and highest damage was during the summer months. At maximum damage was due to elephant (72%) followed by gaur (62%) , sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%) . Tiger (Panthera tigris), panther (leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wild animals were recorded from the state during the period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous methods used for controlling the crop damage had been identified. High voltage electric fencing using energizer was effective for stopping elephants and other herbivores from entering the agriculture fields. Crop damage is found to be linked to the cropping pattern and location of the agriculture fields. Short term and long-term measures needed to prevent the crop damage are discussed (Jayson  EA,1999).

 

7.  Bird crop damages

 

Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop damages by bird have been reported. Blueberry damages by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrotun were minimized. (Avery et al 2002).

 

8. Wild Bird damage

 

          In the northern Great Plains of USA,  conflicts between red-winged black birds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annus)  growers have intensified since the late 1960s due  to the expanded  commercial production of sunflowers. We studied the potential population effects of the removal of up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5 year programme of baiting during spring with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) treated rice. They also examined whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of breeding habitat management, would be cost effective in decreasing depredation of sunflower crops during  late summer. They evaluated the cost benefit ration for 4 culling scenarios involving (1) variable annual cullus, not exceeding 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (i.e. ,a positive density-dependent response) on adult survival and (2) culls of 2 million birds annually with and without density compensation .We constructed a red –winged blackbird population model  represented as an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable growth. We assumed a total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week 1), representing the red-winged blackbird breeding population staging in eastern Southern Dakota and migrating into North Dakota.Under each culling scenario, we reduced the stable red-winged blackbird population (Equally for females and males) and project the population through week 23 of the annual cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated the associated costs of the management relative to potential sunflower crop losses, assuming $0.07 in damage per bird and  4% loss to other factors. Variable annual culls, likely the more biologically realistic model scenarios, yielded mean annual removals of 1 240 560 (SE=12 328) birds with density compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811) birds without density compensation,, with cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, respectively. Annual intrinsic rates for the model population over  the 5 year period ranged from 1-4 to 4.8%. Considering potential variability in the effectiveness of the cull and  the combination of direct and indirect costs,we contend  that the realized benefits to sunflower growers by lethal control of red-winged blackbiards via spring baiting , in combination with current nonlethal management efforts, would likely be negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).

          The efficacy of hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products that contain HC in reducing deer damage to trees and shrubs was determined in a field experiments conducted in USA during 2004-05. The results of the experiments indicate the suitability of HC as a deer repellent. Technical grade HC completely eliminated browsing damage to evergreen shrubs (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as effective as the pure hydrolyzed protein (Kimball et al 2005).

 

 

9. Blackbird damages

          The economic impact of blackbirds can be severe to rice producers in the United States. One approach to managing this damage is the application of bird-deterrent chemical to the crop. Previous pilot trials suggested that caffeine offered potential as a safe, economical bird repellent. In this study, cage feeding trials  with female red –winged blackbirds and male brown headed cowbirds confirmed that a treatment rate of 25000 ppm caffeine on rice seed reduced consumption as much as 76% . Trials with mixed species blackbirds flocks in  a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted in just 4% loss of caffine-treated rice compared to 43% loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a 10 000 ppm caffeine treatment in Louisiana revealed > 90% of caffeine-treated rice seed remained unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the study whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of the untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to be effective, economical and environmentally safe, although additional aquatic toxicity testing is desirable. Improvements in formulation will be needed to make the compound practical for general agricultural spray applications and to extend the adherence of caffeine to rice seeds in field conditions ((Avery et al 2005).

 

10. Deer damage

A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500 farms to know damage  caused by lowland deer to crops, trees and vegetation. Results from the questionnaire showed that 69% (n=1192) of responding farmers had deer on their holdings and that Roe and Fallow were the most frequently seen species. On those farms with deer present, cereals were the most commonly damaged crop (44%), but only 15% of these farmers claimed that the annual cost of damage to cereals exceeded £500 each year for the whole farm. Validation assessments were based on two visits to assess deer damage to the crop, with a deer species/density assessment during the March assessment and an assessment of grain yield and quality during the August assessment. Respondents were generally accurate in the density and species of deer reported. The percentage of the farm suffering damage attributable to deer was very variable, generally being higher at the first assessment than the second. The figures calculated for yield loss were generally low, Farmers were poor at estimating the economic impact of deer damage when compared to validation data, but a number of parameters may have changed in the two years between the questionnaire distribution and validation, including changes in deer density, crop rotations, and the marked drop in grain prices, which may account for some of the inaccuracies. There were no statistically significant relationships between deer damage assessments and yield loss, either for individual species or both species combined. The relationship between Roe deer damage at the harvest assessment and Roe deer density was significant (Post et al, 2001).

Wildlife managers must consider the public’s preferences for wildlife population levels when determining management policies. 849 farmers, hunters and the general public of Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to determine their preferences for increasing, maintaining, or decreasing deer population numbers. Using a random utility theoretic framework, the factors that explain preferences such as residential location, socioeconomic characteristics, landscape damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle accidents were analyzed. Results suggested that the majority of people benefit from deer and want to keep deer population at current levels. Other characteristics such as age, income, education, and residential location have minor or no impact on preferences. Property damage, crop loss, landscape damage, and car accidents appear to be the biggest concerns ( Curtis et al 2001).

 

11. Sika deer population in Japan

          Sika deer Cervus nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, increased rapidly during 1990-1998 . This increase appeared to have halted in 1999-2000, probably due to increased hunting and nuisance control. The period of rapid increase was associated with a disproportionately rapid increase in compensation paid for deer damage to crops. We studied changes in diet during 1990-2000, as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C and N in tooth collagen. We hypothesized that isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary shifts related to population levels and/or time, and that shifts in isotope ratios would be consistent with increasing individual  consumption of pasture grasses at higher population levels, delta 13C isotope ratios of tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants throughout the period, and that forage species other than pasture grasses and dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main crop and woodland understory plants,  respectively) were important elements. There was a significant decline in the delta 13C isotope ratio during  1990-2000 in both males and females, delta 15N values showed no trend with time for males, but increased over time in females. Indices of population (Sightings per Unit Effort, SPUE) were negatively correlated with female delta 13C, and positively correlated with female delta 15N, values indicating a shift in diet over the period , especially among females. This shift may be related to population and/or offtake levels, in particular  the rapid increase in female offtake for nuisance control and hunting during the period. The data are consistent with a relative increase in pasture grass consumption per individual at higher population levels, however, other  explanations of the data are equally plausible. Possible dietary changes, and other factors, influencing the observed shift in isotope ratios are discussed. Although statistically significant, the magnitude of dietary shifts  nevertheless appeared small, and did not provide evidence which would justify modifying the current policy, of limiting crop damage through managed population reduction to about 25% of peak levels( Halley et al 2006).

 

12.  White-tailed deer damages

          White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, disease transmission, environmental degradation, and destruction of ornamental  plantings. One practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials required to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high –value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective fence have expanded the use of fence to manage damage caused by deer. Fence typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or polyrope fence. They reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations (VerCauteren et al 2006).

          The installation of fences to protect agricultural products, natural resources, or other areas from deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be cost effective and which fence designs will be optimal for particular applications. They describe an interactive, dynamic simulation model that conducts economic analyses and predicts economic benefit associated with fences for crops relative to area and perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, percentage of crop damaged by deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and costs of fence materials and labor. Users of the model can easily adjust these variables to fit their individual situations and needs. By running a series of simulations, model users can answer questions related directly to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al 2006).

 

13. Corn damage by wild life

          Corn damages in USA were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to wild life. The white tailed deer was the wild animal responsible for loss. The average hacters owned by farmers were 125 out of which 55 hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).

 

14.  Deer Damage

          Deer (Odocoileus spp.) can cause substantial damage to agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for producers. They developed a deer activated bio-acoustic frightening device to reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage in agricultural fields. The device considered of an infrared detection system that activated an audio component which broadcast recorded distress and alarm calls of deer. They tested the device against unprotected controls in cornfields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth in July 2001. The device was not effective in reducing damage: track-count indices (F1,4=0.02), corn yield (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), and estimated damage levels (F1,10=0.87, P=0.374) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location (F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent overlap (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of use-areas of radiomarked female deer did not differ between during and after treatment periods. They concluded that the deer-activated bio-acoustic device was not effective in protecting cornfields in this study; however, the device may be more effective in small areas such as gardens or for high value crops that do not grow tall enough to offer protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004).

          White –tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions of dollars of damage to agricultural crops annually . They tested the effectiveness of propane exploders and Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer damage in corn fields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth. Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), corn yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and estimated damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0.272) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), Location  (F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use –areas of radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of experimental fields did not differ  among before, during and after 18 day treatment periods. In a related study, we placed propane exploders in cornfields within use-areas of 12 radiomarked female deer. The deer did not react appreciably to the devices; the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921), location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and percent overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of deer use areas did not differ among before, during, and after 14 day treatment periods. They conclude that propane exploders and Electronic Guards have limited potential for reducing deer damage to corn at the silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al 2004l.

 

          A welfare measure for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) field crop producers during the 1998 was. The welfare measure presented in this study provides a more accurate picture of losses from wildlife damage to agricultural. Other damage estimates based on yield loss overstate the damage since benefits from wildlife are netted out. Results for the Ontario field crop producers indicate that the magnitude of the difference between the value of the yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is approximately 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they experienced (Heigh et al 2001).

 

15. Grapevine damages

          In field trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to green grapevines was studied. Visits to the vines by bats begain around 45 minutes after sunset and foraging continued until 1 hour  before sunrise. Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and increased around harvesting time, percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001).

 

16.   Hippo damage

          The introduction to the paper described the various ecological effects known to result from grazing, movement along paths, and wallowing by the common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake National Park., Nigeria, during  the dry season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to assess hippo foraging footprints at three hippo pool sites. A total of 32 footpaths were enumerated out of which 18 were located at Kaii hippo pool site, while the frequency of utilization of paths was also higher for this site relative to those in other area. The upstream-downstream trend in hippo occupancy of dry  season water pools could expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at the peripheral areas.

 

17.  Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages

 

          Mammals inhabiting  Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17 families and about 40 species. Except for Lagomorpha and  Artiodactyla, the remaining five orders among them include species which need some protection and they total about 55% of all species excluding extinct, introduced and feral species. Ecological information in Hyogo prefecture has been accumulated in few protection-required species there is no recent information of spatial distribution on Oriental water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese dormouse; and little information on Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, Japanese large –footed bat. Schreiber’s bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed bat, common parti-colored bat, Japanese squirrel, Japanese small flying-squirrel, Japanese giant flying-squirrel, smith’s vole harvest mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and population managements is also necessary in sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce their crop–damaging, and comprehensive management in Japanese black bear, an endangered local population, to prevent human-bear fatal accident. Habitat alteration due to human activities, however, has affected the population sizes and spatial distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. Habitat management has priority over damage. Fundamental and applied scientific studies and understanding of ecology and wildlife management science needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M 2000).

 

18. Monkey damage

 

          Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about vervet monkey activities on their property. The objective was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop-raiding. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding were also examined: the types of crops grown and the types of direct preventive measures used. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop-raiding is not straight forward. However, the distance a property is located from the forest edge is an important factor influencing vervet crop raiding. Surveyed  gardens 200 m from the  forest edge received significantly less crop –raiding than farms located  100 or 50m (P=0.040,< alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out of 13 farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet potato, or both, were most likely to be damaged by the vervets. Other crops singled out by the farmers are receiving damage by the vervets were bananas, mangoes, groundnuts and yam. They suggest that the development of non-agricultural  activities on land directly adjacent to forested areas may reduce vervet crop –raiding by deterring vervets from traveling greater distances from the forest edge due to increased obstacles or risks  (Saj et al 2001).

 

19. Bait damage

          The longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait  was determined at the end of the “dry” and “wet” seasons,  is Western Australia.. While the total rainfall during the two trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial loss of ZP was recorded only after significant rainfall events. Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP from bait applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum recorded loss was 17% and this occurred after  21 days’ exposure during the wet season where the bait stations were placed in-crop. Nevertheless, regardless of the application method, sufficient ZP always remained on the wheat bait. Theoretically  it was lethal to rats for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al.,  2001).

20.Venezuela experience:

          In Venezuela, lethal control of wintering Dickcissels (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to the species survival. To help farmers protect their rice and sorghum crops from by Dickcissels and to minimize the killing of large numbers of these birds, alternative non-lethal crop protection measures are needed. To that end, the responses of captive Dickcissels to three bird-repellent chemicals (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and methiocarb) applied to rice seed were evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials, treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g, applied as Mesurol 75%  wettable powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as Flight Control) reduced consumption of rice by 70% relative to pretreatment consumption. Other anthraquinone treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective. In two –cup trials, with untreated millet as the alternative food, consumption of rice treated with 0.05 and 0.1%  anthraquinone was reduced by 90% relative to pretreatment levels. Overall, Dickcissels responded to the repellents similarly to the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because Flight Control has been used successfully to reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the USA, the prospect is good for successful reduction of damage to repening rice by Dickcissels in Venezuela, particularly if repellent use is coupled with the establishment of alternative feeding sites ( Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over all green manure crops.

 

21. Nilgai damages in India

           Crop-damage by nilgai has been widely reported from India.  Are give Nilgai is for increasing in this region. Lack of natural predators, deforestation overgrazing and the protection of these animals from Hindu communities are reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover of Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a day time shelter but not food,  therefore it goes for crop-raiding in the late evening and at night, jumping across 6-7 feet high stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of dead or live thorny plant material and any other fencing/barrier made to protect the crop-. Due to habit of both grazing as well as browsing they devore every kind of farm species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has been observed that eating less but destroying more by trampling and causing damage are therefore regarded as serious mammalian crop pest and farmers wants to get ride of this unconventional pest. The farmers chase them away by just following them by making loud sound by crackers or air gun fires, following through tractors, empty tin or dried pumpkin filled with small stones and connected with strings. Technically, carrots(enclosures), trenching or power fencing are suggested to mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, animals could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries from the sites they seen overcrowded or severe crop raiding problems (Goyal et al 2000).

 

22.  Pesticides and wildlife

A range of monitoring activities has shown impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on UK wildlife, and continued risks are evident from laboratory and field experiments, together with the scale of use in the field. Along with other broad spectrum insecticides, many organophosphates have adverse direct effects on non-target arthropods in farmland, and so are likely to contribute towards indirect effects of pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The anticholinesterase insecticides have both lethal and sublethal effects on aquatic wildlife, however the history of recent incidents of damage to river ecology following the wider use of synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates the need to consider the implications of changes in the use of alternative products when reviewing these insecticides ( Burn 2000).

 

          The use of anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging repellent we used to avoid crop damage by sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were effective at deterring cranes from treated corn, neither has been tested on corn under field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).

          Oak seedlings were scientifically raised. Seedling mortality and wild life browse damages were minimal when certain herbicide mixture was used. Biologically and aesthetically, the procedure was extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999).

          Pre-commercially thinned (forests are less prone to moose damage (McLaren et al, 2000).

 

23.  Pesticide use in conflicts

          Pesticides can cause damage to man and beneficial organism. Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were studied in birds with a view to identifying  characteristic biochemical responses that may be useful for the monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal levels in the field. Pesticides were used; demeton-S-methyl, (DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the treatment from the brachial vein of birds. Enzyme, activities were assayed in the plasma or serum samples obtained. The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH, SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed an increase in plasma and serum GOT and gamma-GT levels were found in all animals treated with the previous pesticides. The level of ChE increased in birds after treatment with permethrin. It was concluded that the pesticides cause structural and functional changes in the liver and also, the measurement of the previous parameter activities may be useful for assessing exposure and sub-lethal effects of pesticides on the wildlife (Dahamna et al 2004).

 

 

24. IPM and crop losses

          The queensland sugar, industry has recently implemented a comprehensive integrated pest management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two antive rodent species, Rattus sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $25M of damage in a major outbreak in the  1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are listed as common wildlife under the schedules of the queensland nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. It incorporates a large-scale monitoring programme aimed at providing early warning of imminent rodent build up to avert major outbreaks. The industry has also  developed a memorandum of understanding with Queensland State Government, which delivers on the industry’s pest management needs, while providing an improved system of accountability for the taking of two of Queenslands native wildlife species. The consensus reached between the cooperating parties (The Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane Productivity Services, and the outcomes can be negotiated between rural industry and environmental interests (Hunt et al 2004)  .

          In Areas around Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlement . This poses serious conflict in terms of crop damage. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area potentially containing problem animals, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of random crop quadrants/plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage; human population density, distance from the park boundary and season. In this study data is presented regarding crop loss in the different seasons of the year, analysis of crop damage variation and animal species involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant crop depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al 2004).

 

 

 

25.  Hawai Pest

          The apple snail, P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater snail native to South America, Originally imported to Hawai’i as pets for the aquarium trade, they were soon introduced into wetland plots known as “lo’s” where taro (Colocasia esculenta), an economically and culturally significant crop, is grown. Some individuals reasoned that the snails, being edible, could be harvested as food, and that raising the snails along with the taro in the “Io’s” would provide income supplemental to the taro harvest with minimum additional input. This introduction of snails into the taro “lo’i” however, proved to be a disaster. Farmers failed to take into account the voracity , reproductive potential, and rapid growth of the snails. Because of the ideal conditions in the taro “lo’i”, the snails  multiplied rapidly and fed heavily on the taro shoots and corns in many cases, destroying a complete crop before harvest time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are dissipated via the irrigation system throughout the “lo’i” and then spread to the surrounding wetland areas. Large breeding populations are now established in wetland areas on the islands of Hawai’e, O’ahu, Kaua’I, and Maui. Some of  these wetlands are wildlife preserves with state and federal mandates that restrict the potential methods of eradication. Background information is provided on both P.canaliculata and taro to fully explain the challenges and opportunities that this situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).

 

26.  Chemical repellents

          Chemical feeding repellents applied to ripening sunflower might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damage, which is a chronic agricultural problems from seed information harvest. However, cost are high to develop and register new repellents for agricultural use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding repellency of  8 pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency for use in sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower seeds treated with the following pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an organochlorine, an organophosphorus, and a gungicide. Compared to untreated refernce groups, feeding rates were reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only the organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), however, significantly decreased feeding rates. More research on repellency effects of this product in field efficacy trials is probably warranted based on the results of our cage experiments. Depending on timing of application, registered insecticides with blackbird feeding repellency could provide supplemental economic benefits to sunflower producers through dual purpose use ((Linz et al 2006).

 

27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)

          Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout the global environment to threaten human health and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, human blood, and breast milk documented worldwide. Based on data from the US Food and Drug Administration, this article provides a brief overview of POPs residues in common foods in the USA food supply. The analysis focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted for an international phase out under the Stockholm convention on POPs. The available information indicates that POPs residues are present in virtually all categories of foods, including baked goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, and dairy products. Residues of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in a single food item are not unusual, with the most commonly found POPs being the pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites, such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed the US Environmental Protection Agency and US Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Control reference dose for children. Given the widespread occurrence of POPs in the food supply and the serious health risks associated with even extremely small levels of exposure, prevention of further food contamination must be a national health policy priority in every country. Implementation of the Stockholm Convention will prevent further accumulation of persistent toxic chemicals in food. Early ratification and rapid implementation of this treaty should be an urgent priority for all governments (Schafer et al 2002).

 

28. Netherland experiences

          Traditionally, pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish sites only during mild winter, rapidly moving southwards in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of geese have remained on the Danish wintering grounds despite cold spells, foraging on pastures Because winter wheat represented a reliable and profitable food source even in sever winter, the recent change in Agricultural practice has enhanced the development of a new wintering strategy of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward expansion of their winter range. Potentially, this will increase the crop damage conflict and may lead to further population growth ( Therkidsen et al 2000).

          Enclosure trials near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) in preventing horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were evaluated as foliar sprays at application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in control plots were 100% destroyed. While this level of damage is probably unacceptable to lettuce growers, it should be remembered that the enclosure situation caused an artificially high bird pressure on the crop. Further studies in open fields under a more normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et al 2000).

 

29. Ozone injury

          Incidence and severity of visible foliar ozone injury on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis Walt). Were determined .It is thus a matter of consideration that zone injury may harm vegetation harmed by browsing or even cutting. Ozone injury was greatest on the lower leaves for both species sampled with over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury on these plant species in situ, in the Park, illustrating the great variability in symptom expression with time, and within and between populations ( Chappelka et al 2003).

 

30. Protected arrears and humans

          Knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for the management of most protected areas. The study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Benous Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes the Benous National Park, In northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 households in three communities, and to 17 park staff and 7 professional hunting guides from July –October 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of the surveyed household, with 31% of crop income lost on average, and with the damage varying significantly between communities. Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with the staple food maize and  millet being most affected. Of  the respondents 27% experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of livestock income lost  on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The involvement of local people in illegal activities, their  lack of access to natural resources, and damage by wildlife were identified as principal causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides had diverse and differing perceptions about the causes of the conflicts and made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife damage including animal scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife policy, conflict between people and BWCA  (Bonous Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult to resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, establishment of crop damage control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits to  local people. There may be a requirement for site –specificity in management strategies (Weladji et al 2003).

 

31. Low technology use to avoid damages

           It is suggested that an integrated, community-based, low technological approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict ( Osborn et al 2003).

          Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Baiting blackbirds with avicide-treated rice during spring migration might reduce the regional breeding populations. birds can be successfully baited with avicide-treated rice placed in corn stubble (Linz et al 2003).

            Plant debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor determining small mammal abundance and potential damage in low-till agricultural ((Stermer et al 2003) areas.

          The projected total value of crop yield losses due to wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain, horticultural crops i.e apple, also suffered. Major wildlife

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/science-articles/crop-damages-by-wild-animals-global-view-country-report-and-reviews-in-110-sections-507194.html

About the Author

Here is Fontana Business Lawyer Sebastian Gibson’s Top Ten:

 

1. Drill for oil.

 

2. Go moose hunting and make moose jerky.

 

3. Open a consignment store and ask former candidates for clothes contributions.

 

4. Keep a watchful eye for Putin entering your air space.

 

5. Listen to the treasury secretary and do the opposite.

 

6. Listen to the financial gurus on TV and do the opposite even more.

 

7. Don’t give interviews to that Couric woman.

 

8. Watch out for plumbers who will steal the limelight.

 

9. Wear your hair in some awful beehive style.

 

10. Say “you betcha” all the time.

 

Now here is everything (well, almost everything) you need in business to know about environmental, international law, election and campaign law, consumer law, class actions, constitutional, internet, publishing, advertising, media, publicity and privacy rights, employment law, estate planning, wills, trusts, water law, agricultural, insurance law, bad faith, psychologist and psychotherapist defense, education law and child accidents.

You can also find all you need to know (well, mostly) in business about personal injury, car accidents, brain damage, wrongful deaths, business, real estate, landlord-tenant, homeowners association law, construction, patents, trademarks, corporations, entertainment law, advertising, copyrights, food and wine, and hotel and restaurant law and litigation by searching for those subjects and adding the words Fontana business lawyer or Fontana business attorney to your search terms and looking for other articles by Sebastian Gibson.

 

You can also learn more about any of these business areas of law and how we can assist you as Fontana business attorneys, or as lawyers in any city, by calling the Law Offices of R. Sebastian Gibson at any of the numbers which can be found on our website at http://www.SebastianGibsonLaw.com  .

 

1. Personal Injury, Car Accidents, Brain Damage, Catastrophic Injuries and Wrongful Deaths in Fontana – If you’ve had a Fontana auto, motorcycle, truck, pedestrian, bicycle, bus, train, airplane or car accident of any kind, get the other driver’s information, take camera or cell phone pictures, call the police, get a report, seek medical treatment immediately, call us or another good Fontana personal injury lawyer. Report the accident to your insurance agent, file a report with the DMV and don’t talk to anyone else or give a recorded statement until you talk with an attorney from our office. If you’ve lost a loved on in an accident, call us or another good Fontana personal injury lawyer immediately. Brain damage and catastrophic injury cases as with wrongful death cases require the expertise of a Fontana attorney with experience in these difficult cases. If you want to ensure that you and your family members receive the compensation you deserve, be sure to hire a Fontana personal injury attorney with decades of experience with brain damage, catastrophic injuries and wrongful deaths.

 

2. Environmental and Toxic Tort Law in Fontana – With multi-billion dollar energy companies spending more money to confuse the public on the threat posed by global warming than on research into alternative forms of energy, it will take all of us to sort fact from fiction and solve the growing problem of global warming. An additional danger to all of us comes from exposure to toxic materials in our daily lives from tainted food, to contaminated ground water, to dangerous viruses in the public and in hospitals to lead and mercury poisoning. If you experience unusual symptoms that a doctor can’t explain, you may have been exposed to a toxic substance and have a toxic tort claim that should be evaluated by us or another qualified Fontana environmental attorney.

 

3. Fontana International, Shipping and Maritime Law – A Fontana international attorney with years of international legal education and experience such as you’ll find at our Fontana law firm, can provide you with a wealth of practical knowledge and the ability to find answers to your international law questions. It is to your advantage to also have a Fontana international lawyer working in cooperation with foreign counsel in other jurisdictions to ensure that the most cost-effective avenues are pursued to resolve your legal matter. However, many international matters can be resolved with letters between Fontana international lawyers and foreign lawyers, and international mediations and arbitrations can also be utilized. If you have been injured on a ship or an oil rig you have rights under the Jones Act to be compensated for your injuries, medical treatment, past and future wage loss and care.

 

4. Fontana Election and Campaign Finance Law – If you are considering running for political office or have already done so and are facing campaign finance legal issues, the time to hire a Fontana election attorney with election law knowledge is at the first possible opportunity before you get into hot water that can sink your campaign or put your political career into jeopardy.

 

5. Fontana Consumer Law and Class Actions – If you have paid for an item but have not received it, been promised an action or service that has not come to fruition or are considering ordering services or signing any type of agreement, the time to hire a Fontana consumer lawyer is immediately in order to avoid being scammed, or defrauded. A Fontana consumer attorney’s letter drafted forcefully but professionally will obtain the desired result, products or services in a good percentage of cases. Whether you ordered gold bars but did not receive them, were told that your car would be paid off when you traded it in on a new one or were promised that a pool would be completed in your back yard, a Fontana consumer attorney can and should be hired for a modest fee to write a letter on your behalf and demand the required action, products or services. If you think you are just one of many who have been scammed or defrauded in some way, you may have a class action.

 

6. Constitutional, Publishing and Publicity and Privacy Rights, Internet Law, Advertising and Media Law in Fontana – Defamation includes both libel and slander. Anyone in the media or publishing or broadcast world or with a web site is at risk of a lawsuit for claims of defamation or false advertising However, constitutional law questions also arise in civil rights discrimination cases, discrimination in employment and a wide variety of other legal matters. If you have been disenfranchised or your constitutional rights abused in any matter or if you have been accused of abusing the rights of others, contact a Fontana constitutional lawyer as soon as it occurs. If others seek to profit with the use of your name or image you also have a claim for damages.

 

7. Employment Law in Fontana – It may seem silly to think you should hire a Fontana employment attorney whenever you are considering firing an employee, but it has come to that. However, a consultation with a good Fontana employment law firm can provide you with the advice of how to handle your employee relations both immediately and in the future as you either seek to cut costs or get rid of a problematic employee. If you have been sued or threatened with a suit, or are being scammed by an employee, consult a Fontana employment lawyer immediately.

 

8. Fontana Estate Planning, Wills and Trusts – The current estate tax in 2008 affects only people who die with an estate in excess of two million dollars. In 2009, that amount will increase to three and a half million dollars and in 2010, the estate tax is repealed. That’s the good news. If, however, the estate tax repeal is not extended by 2011, the estate tax will kick in again. The worse news is that in 2011, if the estate tax repeal is not extended, the estate tax will kick in at one million dollars. The current federal estate tax rate is a whopping 47 percent. That stays the same in 2009. But other current provisions in the tax code change or end in 2010. In light of this, it is more important than ever to hire a Fontana estate planning lawyer to draft your will and evaluate the need for a living trust to avoid probate fees ensure your estate goes to the beneficiaries you want it to go to. If you don’t have a will or trust at death, the state will determine who gets your estate, but it will usually be your spouse and children, of if you have none, your closest relatives.

 

9. Water, Agricultural and Natural Resource Law in Fontana – It is hoped by American farmers and meat producers that the new Country of Origin Labeling Law taking effect in groceries will cause food shoppers to seek meat and produce from the U.S. over food items from other countries. But it is the water shortage in California that has California farmers faced with dire consequences. In 2008, the California Governor formed a Water Bank to stave off mandatory water rationing, but if California has another dry winter, or more fires that draw upon California’s precious water reserves, or if the state legislature does not address the state’s delta environmental problems and expand the state’s water works, with a bill that has been tied up while the legislators haggled over a budget, rationing across the state could become a reality. If you have a water or agricultural issue, the time to call a Fontana agricultural lawyer with knowledge in this areas is before the issue becomes critical.

 

10. Insurance Law, Bad Faith, Psychologist, Psychiatrist and Psychotherapist Defense in Fontana – As insurance companies feel the pain of the stock market crash and face the reality of the value of their own investments decreasing, we expect to see insurance companies delaying settlements, and flirting with violations of the insurance bad faith statutes. As the public becomes more and more depressed with the sinking stock market, loss of jobs, reduced income and less enjoyment out of life, we also see the likelihood of greater use of psychiatrists, psychologists and psychotherapists. When claims are made against these professionals without justification, our Fontana law firm stands ready to defend them

 

11. Fontana Education Law and Child Accidents – A recent court ruling in California has given temporary relief to parents homeschooling their children. However, we still expect further court rulings to make guidelines that will govern when or under what circumstances homeschooling of children will be permitted in California. Children, as any parent knows, can be injured any time, anywhere. What should not happen is any injury to a child that is the result of the negligence of another. To that end, our Fontana personal injury lawyers championed protection for children and convinced at least one court and encouraged other personal injury attorneys to do the same, to uphold a new tort for negligent endangerment of a child.

 

If you have a legal matter in Fontana, Ontario, Rancho Cucamonga, Temecula, Murrieta, Riverside, San Bernardino, Moreno Valley, Inland Empire, Rialto, Redlands, Hemet, Perris, Colton, San Bernardino County, Highland, Yucaipa, Banning, Riverside County, Big Bear, Lake Arrowhead or anywhere in the Inland Empire, our Fontana law firm has the knowledge and resources to be your Fontana Lawyers and your Fontana Attorneys. Be sure to hire a Coachella Valley law firm with experience in Personal Injury, Car Accidents, Drownings, Brain Damage, Catastrophic Injuries, Wrongful Death, Business, Real Estate and Landlord Tenant Law, Homeowner Association Law, Construction, Trademarks, Patents, Corporations, Entertainment, Sports Law, Marketing, Advertising, Media, and Copyright Law, and who will endeavor to ensure that your rights are properly represented.

 

Additionally, if you have a legal matter which involves Environmental and Toxic Tort Law, Litigation, International, Shipping and Maritime Law, Employment, Election and Campaign Finance Law, Consumer Law and Class Actions, Constitutional, Publishing, Publicity, Privacy Rights, Internet Law, Advertising and Media Law, Food and Wine Law, Hotel and Restaurant Law, Estate Planning, Wills and Trusts, Water, Agricultural and Natural Resource Law, Insurance Law, Bad Faith and Psychiatrist and Psychotherapist Defense, Education Law or a Child Accident in Fontana or anywhere in Southern California, call the Law Offices of R. Sebastian Gibson, or visit our website at http://www.SebastianGibsonLaw.com  and learn how a Fontana attorney from our offices can assist you.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/national-state-local-articles/fontana-business-lawyers-top-ten-sarah-palin-ways-to-get-more-business-665103.html

About the Author

The Sebastian Gibson Business Law Firm serves Fontana, Ontario, Rancho Cucamonga, Temecula, Murrieta, Riverside, San Bernardino County, Moreno Valley, Inland Empire, Rialto, Redlands, Hemet, San Bernardino, Perris, Colton, Highland, Yucaipa, Banning, Riverside County, Big Bear, and Lake Arrowhead. and all of Southern California. We stand ready to assist you with any type of Personal Injury, Car Accidents, Motorcycle Accidents, Truck Accidents, Dog Bites, Drownings, Brain Damage, Catastrophic Injuries, Wrongful Death, Business, Real Estate and Landlord Tenant Law, Homeowner Association Law, Construction, Trademarks, Patents, Corporations, Entertainment, Sports Law, Marketing, Advertising, Media, and Copyright Law matter.

Visit our website at http://www.sebastiangibsonlaw.com if you have a legal matter of any kind. We have the knowledge and resources to represent you as your Fontana Business Lawyer and Fontana Business Attorney for Environmental and Toxic Tort Law, Litigation, International, Shipping and Maritime Law, Employment, Election and Campaign Finance Law, Consumer Law and Class Actions, Constitutional, Publishing, Publicity, Privacy Rights, Internet Law, Advertising and Media Law, Food and Wine Law, Hotel and Restaurant Law, Estate Planning, Wills and Trusts, Water, Agricultural and Natural Resource Law, Insurance Law, Bad Faith and Psychiatrist and Psychotherapist Defense, Education Law and Child Accidents.

Silence  stillness immensity 
forest stretching endlessly 
snow covered, quietly breathing its tremendous, wide, conifer expanse
And the sough of wind rising and falling
Most beings here  – plant or animal  – are melded into this spacious and soul-purifying landscape
As is the human 
But the human is also, at least in part, separate from the land.
And human nature can discern, by way of the 12 senses, aspects and nuances of  the natural world through these 12 portals.

The snow sifts down into the forest, falling windless and so light as to seem almost weightless, afloat in place.  A deep silence holds sway, an ocean of stillness that invites entry. And there is space enough here for any size contemplation.

In the northern, boreal realm, across this endless range of semi-homogenous evergreen forest radiating its steadfast and grounded, robust energy  – across the conifer deep  – here and there, an accent counters the etheric expanse with an astral focus, an animal being  – raven, jay, squirrel-hunting marten, wolf, moose, or chickadee.

Tracks in the snow tell the stories.  A snowshoe hare nips birch tips from a fallen tree.  A luxuriously furred marten pursues a red squirrel.  Unless the squirrel quickly makes it to one of its underground dens it will become the marten’s meal.

Sometime in the night the wolf came near.  It came to investigate who was howling in the evening, howling like, yet unlike, another wolf (it’s own sense of language revealing that, although the sound of my howl seemed very similar to a wolf’s, there was a subtle difference).  It came near enough to discern the scent of human presence, approached as near as it dared, always keeping a periphery of safety as it circuited the area of the cabin.

What curiosity was left unquenched? And in the daylight I could feel the wolf watching me from somewhere in the woods, as I went out on the frozen lake to investigate the passage of its own movement, the story told by its tracks.

Surely, from the wolf’s point of view, it experiences the most challenge of interpretation (in a sense, the wolf’s level of conceptual sense) from the human community.  As is well known, the wolf can read, very intimately, the comings and goings, the various aspects of, the moose, and other inhabitants of its immediate neighborhood.  But the human being becomes rich in enigma, embodies a broad range of Unknown in the sphere of the wolf’s experience.

Snow-shoeing through a forest during a snowfall can be an ideal setting to attune to the landscape.  Distractions are reduced  – sound is muffled and visibility is confined to a radius of a few feet (of course it goes without saying that one has to exercise care, bring a compass and be good at orienteering, or you can end up in oblivion!)
Overall, the Spirit of the boreal forest  – the heart of the boreal forest landscape, like the heart of one of its trees, one senses, is golden, intricate, warm despite the climate, perhaps because of the climate, to counterpoint the cold.

In sharing this encounter with nature through the twelve senses, I will begin with the outermost, least penetrating sense and proceed to the deepest-registering sense (please note that the following presumes a basic understanding of the 12 senses.  If the reader wishes to prime him/herself on this subject, use the links under “Further Resources” at the end of the article.  Alternatively, information is readily available by entering an internet search via “12 senses”  – and adding “Rudolf Steiner” can be helpful):

Touch.

The longer I touch the snow and ice here, the number grows this sense.  Then, in turns, it is awakened by prickle of conifer needle, rasped by bark, or caressed by the soft feel of usnea moss.  Whatever the sensate experience of touch, I have to admit that it defines my separation, the self’s bounds, or at least the physical body’s self-bounding. I do touch nature with this sense, but only her outermost surface, a Braille of rebuff, no entry past the outermost edge.  As we continue down this list, we enter, increasingly, into the inner nature of things.  But the sense of touch is the most external.

For example, when the wind gusts across my face, my sense of touch feels the impact of that gust, but my sense of temperature registers how cool or warm it is.

A manatee, with more brain space dedicated to touch than any other mammal, has a long-distance sense of touch.  Whisker like hairs all over its body act as sensors, so that it can, in effect, “touch” from a distance.

Life.

After a long day of snow-shoeing my sense of life feels drained, very low in energy/chi, even despite practicing energy-enhancing Qi-gong along the way (I’m not by any means a master in the art yet).

Overall, as I undertake this trek, my sense of life is both enhanced and exhausted.  My constitutional energy is put to the test, the body forces are working at their limit. However, the etheric energy of the forest is so resplendent that there is a constant influx of vitality.  An interesting point to be made here is that in urban areas people have to enhance their life sense due to the lack of nature-borne vitality.  In consideration of this, we can say, if asked what is truly the most valuable property in, say, New York, the answer is that Central Park has more worth that all the rest of Manhattan combined!

Migrating birds can detect and use magnetic fields of the Earth to navigate by.  Is this so-called “magnetic field”  actually part of the sense of life of the planet streaming forth?  And are the birds, in a way, projecting their own sense of life outward to detect the Earth’s energy in this manner?

Wolves are known to stare into the eyes of their prey before opting to attack, reading in their potential prey the nature of their sense of life, their overall constitutional strength and condition of health.

Movement.

This sense of awareness of the body-in-motion enables us to know where any part of our body is even with eyes closed.  It is a sense that can be refined and enhanced, as in the case of intricate choreography.

When projected outward, we can sense movement in others.  One evening, as I was bent over a campfire, cooking a meal, I could sense something passing over above me.  As I looked up I saw an owl flying in the trajectory I had been sensing.  The owl, as we know is capable of flying quite silently.  I did not hear its passage, nor could I see it in any way, until after I looked up.

Tracks of a solitary snowshoe hare enter the woods, appearing to have crossed the frozen lake  – a distance of about 2 miles.  What could have drawn the hare across such an long open distance?  Its progress would have been little noticed as its coat matched the snow so well (here again, a developed sense of movement projected outward would have helped to sense the hare’s passage.)

Does the weasel sense the movement of mice and voles in the sub-nivean chamber beneath the snow, before it dives in?

Often have I watched a flock of shorebirds, or snowbirds, as they fly in complete unison, twisting, turning, diving, swooping as one.  Here, the sense of movement has been refined and con-joined to each member of the flock, as though a single being is operating every nuance of movement.  This particular example can also shed light on how the sense of ego operates within the realm of nature  – more on that below.

For the whole version of this article visit the Earth Vision website.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/metaphysics-articles/the-twelve-senses-in-the-world-of-nature-770592.html

About the Author

J Graf is the coordinator of Insight21 and Earth Vision – doorways for the 21st Century.

fer computer hunting games to play for free. Some of them will require you to register as a member of their site, but, of course, the membership is free, so you may as well do so if you want to play online.

One of the good things about computer hunting games to play for free is that you also have a lot of choices of what type of game you want to hunt as well as whether or not you want to play against the computer or against other hunting enthusiasts from all over the world. There are a lot of people who like to play computer hunting games, and you may discover that you will find yourself a whole new community of friends that, obviously, share the same interests as you. You will find yourself with new friends and a whole new part of your life that revolves around the love of hunting and video games.

There are lots of web sites that offer computer hunting games to play for free. When we did a Google search, we found hundreds of places that you can go to that makes the choices almost limitless. You can hunt for deer, elk, bears, moose, and more. Not only can you find computer hunting games to play for free, you can also play computer fishing games as well. For the hunting enthusiast, it is an exciting new innovation with all sorts of possibilities.

Like hunting video games on video consoles, you can move up in levels the better you get. These games can even improve your real-life hunting skills. As you hunt for your prey in realistic environments, you can hone your powers of perception that you can take into the field and utilize what you’ve learned.

Here are some sites you may want to consider. Please keep in mind that we do not support any one site over another, but we want to give you some choices to look at as you look for computer hunting games to play for free!

Game Revolt – www.gamerevolt.com
Njoyment – www.njoyment.com
Uncover The Net – www.uncoverthenet.com
ESPN – www.espn.com
Mr. Free – www.mrfreefree.com

And those are just a few of the many computer hunting game to play for free online. Check out their sites and find one that you like – or choose them all! The Internet offers up so many options for gamers and the web site operators know that. That is why you won’t have any trouble at all finding computer hunting games to play for free.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/extreme-sports-articles/computer-hunting-games-to-play-for-free-775908.html

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Download Abhishek’s FREE 66 Pages Ebook, “How To Play And Enjoy Hunting Video Games” from his website http://www.Hunting-Guru.com/100/index.htm . Only limited Free Copies available.

Hunting season is almost here and now is the time to buy that new gear you have been wanting – have you decided on a new knife?  Is there such a thing as the “perfect hunting knife?” Probably not.  But there are many knives on the market that will fill the bill nicely. 

But why would you want to listen to me talk about hunting knives.  Well, a little about me.  I have been an avid hunter for the past 50 years and have hunted big and small game everywhere from Alaska to Florida, Europe and the Pacific.  I have hunted, dressed and butchered dove-squirrel-rabbit-turkey-raccoon-fox-coyote-waterfowl-javalina-mule deer-whitetail deer-antelope in the US lower 48, waterfowl-ptarmigan-snowshoe hare-moose-caribou-brown bear in Alaska, waterfowl-wood pigeons-rabbits in the UK, and wild pigs/boar in Guam.

So, how would I choose the best hunting knife for me?  First, determine what kind of hunting activities you want to do and whether I.  Will you be hunting waterfowl, small game, large game, or a combination of them all?  Generally, the larger the game, the larger the knife – but that doesn’t mean that a good sharp smaller knife won’t work just fine.

Once you determine the kind of hunting you are interested in, you need to ask yourself a few additional questions.  Do you want a knife just for hunting?  Do you want to carry your knife when you are not hunting? 

Now that we have these questions answered, lets talk turkey.

BIG GAME HUNTER:  If you are a big game hunter and want a knife specifically for dressing big game, you should consider a fixed blade knife.  By definition, these knives are permanently open so they are generally stronger and more reliable.  Because the blade is always open, they normally come with a sheath for safe carrying. 

But just deciding on a fixed blade knife is not enough – now we have to determine the blade style best suited for your purpose.  If this knife is to be strictly used for big game hunting, I recommend a “drop point” blade – a strong curved blade ideal for skinning large animals.  This heavy blade design can also be used for gutting, butchering and splitting the pelvis and rib cage.  Finally, you may consider a knife with a “gut hook” especially designed for opening the abdomen when field dressing your game. 

If you opt for a knife without a gut hook, you may consider a knife with a “clip point” blade – these blades are usually thinner and have a more pointed blade.  This would be better for opening the abdomen of your game without cutting too deep and penetrating the intestine.

SMALL GAME HUNTER: If your quarry is small game, anything goes, you can choose a smaller fixed blade knife, a folder, or pocketknife.  Personally, I have always opted for a folding knife with a clip point blade (my favorite is my classic Buck Folding Hunter).  However, to add flexibility, you may consider a multi-blade pocketknife – the Case Mini Trapper has both a clip point blade and a ”spey” blade ideal for skinning small game.

OCCASIONAL HUNTER:  For the occasional hunter who hunts “whatever is in season,” I recommend a good mid-size folding knife.  My favorite has always been the Buck Ranger (112BRS).  This classic knife is small enough to effectively deal with small game, but sturdy enough to be just as useful in field dressing/butchering large game.  Mine has been my primary knife throughout my hunting career—including, antelope hunting in Wyoming, deer hunting in Utah, Caribou and Brown Bear hunting in Alaska, boar hunting in Guam, and a myriad of small game hunting around the world.

FOR THE HUNTER WHO WANTS TO CARRY A KNIFE DAILY:  If you only want one knife to carry for everything, I recommend a multi-blade pocketknife – like the Case “Stockman” or “Trapper” series.  I also recommend you check your local knife carry laws – usually knives with blades 3 inches or less are legal – BUT remember all knives are prohibited from many locations including courthouses, some government building, airports, etc.  NOTE:  I prefer the venerable pocketknife over a folding knife because the former is carried in a pocket while folding knives are usually carried in a sheath visible to all.

IMPORTANT COMMENT:  No matter what type or size knife you have, it will not do the job unless it is good and sharp.  A knife can lose its edge while dressing the animal, so you need to have a good knife sharpener with you to keep the knife sharp from start to finish.  It is not uncommon for a hunter to stop several times while dressing game to sharpen his/her knife.  Also, in general, the more expensive the knife, the longer it will hold its edge – but this also means these harder blades take longer to sharpen – so there is some tradeoff here.

SUMMARY:  There are literally thousands of knives on the market, so you must prioritize your needs and choose the one (two or even three) that best fill those needs.  It is possible to choose one knife for multiple purposes, but most outdoors people have at least 2 with them when they go out.  To learn more about knives available go to my web site www.PocketKnivesPro.com and search on various knives by type, blade type, or brand.  HAPPY SHOPPING AND HAPPY HUNTING.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/outdoor-sports-articles/how-to-choose-a-hunting-knife-1202713.html

About the Author

Larry Clark is President of Clark Unlimited, Inc, a Florida based family owned internet marketing firm which focuses on providing quality products and world-class service at highly competitive discount prices. He is the founder of the website www.PocketKnivesPro.com – providing a wide variety of pocketknives, folding and fixed blade knives, as well as multi-purpose tools and sharpening tools from major manufacturers such as Buck, Case, Gerber, Kershaw, Leatherman and Victorinox.

Legends & Lore
NH’s Mountain Lions
Mountain Lion Facts
Scientific Name: Puma concolor

Life Span: 8-11 years and up to 15-18 years in the wild and 19-20 years in captivity

Size: Males are 6-8 feet long; 110-180 pounds Females 5 to 7 feet long; 80 to 130 pounds

Status: western populations stable; increased sightings in the east, although officially extirpated in NH

Offspring: 1-6 cubs; usually 3 or 4

Description: The species name concolor indicates that the pelt color does not vary over the back, sides, limbs and tail. The color however varies geographically and seasonally from light gray to cinnamon to rust red and light tan or brown. The under parts, inner ear, lower cheeks, chin and lips are white. There are black markings on the side of the muzzle, back of the ears and the tip of the adult tail. Both males and females are colored alike. Young have black or brown spots on buffy fur for up to 18 months which gradually disappear as they mature. Adult size varies greatly and can be anywhere from 5.5 feet to 8.5 feet in length (including the tail). The tail can be up to 1/3 of the animal’s length. Weights also vary, ranging from 60 to 225 pounds. Their feet are broad with 4 digits behind and 5 digits on the front. Estimated life span in the wild is 8 – 11 years (maximum 15-18 years) and over 20 in captivity.

Habitat: The Mountain lion has a wide range of habitats although these are steadily diminishing with the encroachment of human populations. They are found in high temperate and tropical lowland forests, grasslands, swamps and any area with adequate cover and sufficient prey. Mountain lions have been found anywhere from sea-level to 10,000 feet. Habitat has become fragmented and confined in the continental USA to 12 western states and the southern tip of Florida. Mountain lions are also found in parts of Canada, Mexico and South America. Mountain lion numbers are low east of the Mississippi although there is a remnant population (Florida panther subspecies) in Florida. Generally within the geographical range mentioned above, look for them in large wilderness areas. Their environmental preference is a rocky canyon, escarpment, rim rocks or dense brush. Flat brushless deserts, agricultural areas and heavily timbered areas are avoided in favor of cleared areas at the edge of forests or wetlands. Males have a range of anywhere from 25-200 square miles with a possible overlap with another male of up to 3 miles. Females are more stable and confine their permanent home range from 5 to 20 square miles. Living areas can be identified by a scrape or even a small pile of leaves and grasses on which the male urinates or defecates to establish its territory. More likely look for an overhanging ledge, a crevice, a dry cavity, under roots or even a badger burrow or deep thicket.

Predators and Prey: Ungulates are the primary prey. It is estimated that a healthy Mountain Lion will take up to 48 deer, moose, elk or caribou a year consuming from 860 to 1300 kg of meat. In North America if deer are not available they are known to take coyote, bobcat, porcupine, beaver, rabbit, opossum, raccoon, skunk, rodents and even snake and fish. The mountain lion kills by stalking and then leaping on the back of the prey , breaking its neck by biting behind the skull. In the course of a night hunt and stalk, the mountain lion will travel up to six miles in 6 bursts of 1-2 hours each with a rest period in between. They stalk by crouching in a concealed position ready to pounce with its ears upright and tail twitching. When feeding, if it does not consume all the carcass, it will bury the remainder for later consumption. Some mountain lions have been observed eating vegetation, although animal flesh is the favored diet. Mountain lions have also been known to take domestic livestock which has led to their pursuit and killing as an unwanted predator. Sport hunting is legal in 11 western states. The only exception is California. It is estimated that 2500 mountain lion are shot and killed each year by professional and other hunters.

Adaptations and Behavior: Mountain lions are solitary animals. This solitude is broken for the adult only for breeding and parenting. Population densities vary from one animal per 25-50 square miles to one per 8-34 square miles. The animals tend to space themselves to accomodate the food supply. Up to three females with young live within an area used by a resident male. Within that same range, at any one time, will be the resident adults, juveniles, transients, kittens and young adults who have not established home ranges. Movement tends to be nocturnal with occasional crepuscular forays. Communication appears to be through vocalizations of hisses, growls and purrs, but never roars. Males from a litter band together after leaving the mother, but then disperse as adults seeking and establishing their own ranges. Generally a mountain lion will use a winter and summer home area and migrate between them, possibly hundreds of miles apart. Although adept at climbing trees, mountain lions spend most of their time on the ground. The mountain lion’s hind legs are long while the front legs are short and very muscular giving it the ability to jump15-18 feet vertically and 30-45 feet horizontally. It is estimated that they can run at speeds of up to 35 miles an hour covering more than 100 yards in less than 5 seconds. In spite of this great speed, they can only cover a short distance before requiring a rest.

Breeding and Development: Female mountain lions begin breeding at about 3 years of age and then breed once every 2 or 3 years. They mate during any season with the courtship initiated by the female and usually includes mating with a number of males. Typical litters of 1 to 6 kittens are born after a gestation period of 82-98 days. Newborns weigh up to one pound and rapidly gain weight. At birth the kittens are wooly, spotted and have short tails. Their eyes open in about 8 or 9 days. They develop teeth when they are a month old and are weaned when about 2 or 3 months at which time they accompany their mother to kills. Kittens remain with the mother into their second year.

Fun Facts: Also known as cougar, catamount, panther and 35 other names. The SLNSC mountain lions arrived in January 2003 from Montana. They were unfortunately orphaned at a young age and initially raised by the Montana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. There have been many reports of mountain lion sightings in the NH lakes region. As of this writing, there are scat samples submitted for DNA analysis to confirm the presence of these large cats in NH. The New Hampshire Fish and Game Department does not recognize the presence of mountain lions in NH due to lack of confirmed sightings.

I Believe T-Shirt from Moosewood Communications

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/environment-articles/mountain-lion-facts-1254956.html

About the Author

Facts courtesy of Squam Lakes Natural Science Center
P.O. Box 173, Holderness, NH 03245
Phone: 603-968-7194; ext. 34
Fax: 603-968-2229
Web: nhnature.org

Wayne King is a recovering politician, nature writer and political commentator and President of Moosewood Communicaions in Rumney, NH. He blogs from his space in the Blogosphere, Greener Minds, where he advocates for a sustainable planet;

King holds a BS Degree in Earth Sciences and a Masters Degree in Earth & Space Science Education from the University of New Hampshire, Durham. King is also an accomplished photographer. His images can be found in galleries from Maine to California. His images are a celebration of life, blending the real and the surreal to achieve a sense of place or time that reaches beyond the moment into a dreamlike quintessentialism designed to spark an emotional response. Using digital enhancement, handcrafting, painting, and sometimes even straight photography, King takes the viewer to a place that is beyond simple truth to where truth meets passion, hope and dreams.

Before you settle on one of the new SOG knives for hunting, there are a few things you should Consider. What animals will you hunt? How will you dress and butcher the animal? Do you plan to have a mount made? How do you need to carry the knife and is size or weight a factor? All of these things may not seem important at first impression, but get into the elk woods with a knife poorly suited to skinning, caping or deboning and they suddenly become obvious.
There are , however , knives in particular designed for small game. Big game like deer, elk, bear, moose and caribou are just that … Large game. That pocket knife you use on rabbits or quail might get the task finished on a bear, but it doesn’t go to be easy or agreeable.

We’ll stick with big game. After the kill, your initial consideration will likely be field dressing or gutting. Any experienced hunter knows that, right? But is there a selected type knife that’s better at gutting than some other? Can’t you tummy a deer or an elk with the same knife you’ll use to skin it? Sure you can, but …

Consider that a dedicated gut hook, or a knife with an in-built tummy hook, will do a neater, cleaner job of field dressing than a skinning knife will, just as a skinning knife will skin that elk simpler and more efficiently than a deboning knife ever could. And speaking of deboning … And what if that elk you simply shot is your’Trophy of a Lifetime’? You want a mount, don’t you? At least a full head or a shoulder mount, huh? That suggests someone will have to cape that elk correctly so your taxidermist will have something to work with besides a ragged hide full of nicks and holes. A caping knife is in order.

The point here is that there are different type knives for different jobs.

Now let’s compare the types mentioned so far
Dedicated stomach hooks

This knife ( for our purposes we’ll call it a knife ) truly has only one intended purpose … To cut open the belly, or paunch, WITHOUT cutting into the guts and making a massive, stinky, contaminating mess.

Knives with built-in tummy hooks
This is a regular knife, just about any style blade, but with the tum hook built right in. Double duty, two-in-one, if you will. ( we will chat about the different blade styles further down the page. )
Skinning knives
Skinning knives typically have a rounded blade and aren’t so pointed at the tip. The rounded cutting edge helps cutting the membrane that holds the skin to the animal. You use it in a sort or’swiping’ or’rocking’ motion, as opposed to’slicing’. As with any knife, there are diversifications and adaptations but a skinner nearly always has this rounded, blunt-tipped appearance.
regularly regarded as a’butcher knife’ or merely a’boning knife’. This kind knife is excellent for cutting beef from bone. Then again, a deboning knife could serve as a good general generally hunting knife.

Caping involves fine, detailed skinning work around your prize’s antlers, eyes, ears, nose and mouth. A good caping knife generally has a slim, thin … But not too flexible … Some caping knives have pointed blades, some rounded. This is more a matter of preference than anything. While the rounded versions help make certain you don’t incidentally poke a hole where you do not need one, the pointed versions can reach into tighter places to make more delicate cuts. Just remember … Control and delicacy. Any unwelcome hole will need to be patched by your taxidermist ( most likely at added cost to you ) and any’missing’ hide is not simply or cheaply replaced.
it is possible to cape out a nice prize with that general, all-around hunting knife, but keep in mind the old chestnut about the proper tool for the job.
as far as hunting knives go, there are 3 basic blade styles drop point, clip point and skinning.
The drop point is a brilliant blade design for gigantic game. The blade is usually heavier and thicker, making for a solid, robust knife capable of splitting the sternum and even the ribs of all but the largest, toughest big game animal.

Clip point blades are rather thinner than drop points and the point is intensified. It’s also a bit flatter from cutting edge to back and makes a superb all-purpose knife, hunting aside.
Many skinning knives are very close in design to the drop point. However [*COMMA] the’typical’,'modern’ skinners don’t have the gentle curve related to the drop point. The skinner’s curve is generally more drastic, starting more in the middle than at the handle, and the curve tends to have a bigger radius than that of the drop point. Some very old skinner designs, not too much in production as hunting knives nowadays, have an almost crescent shape and frequently much longer blades.

Fixed or Folding?
That announced, there are some with interchangeable blades, and even a few that have two blades, one projecting from each end of the handle … One blade at a time, by’sliding’ the handle forwards and backwards. For our purposes, these are still fixed blade knives.

Fixed blades require a sheath to give protection to the cutting edge, and the hunter. The blades fold away into the handle when not in use, although not by themselves. Any folding knife used for huge game should have a mechanism that locks the blade open. Pivots eventually wear out and, occasionally, a locking mechanism fails. Not a big score and not all that tough to wash, just something to think about.
summary
there is a knife for every task you’ll encounter in hunting. Each task begs the right knife. Does this mean you’ll need to carry 3, four, 5 knives every time you set out from camp? Naturally not. With one well-designed, well-made knife, perhaps two, you can accomplish any of those jobs. The options are there, you know what they are. Now you simply make up your intelligence based totally on what you know and how much you can spend.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/outdoor-sports-articles/sog-knives-and-hunting-1264604.html

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Trail Cameras

R. Dodge Woodson

World Photographers Organization

I looked into trail cameras recently. My son wanted on to monitor our woods with, and I thought it might put a new spin on my wildlife photography.  No, I am not suggesting that anyone use trail cameras to capture wildlife photos for sale or display. The pictures you get, however, can put you in the right area with your wildlife gear.

Much of the time spent afield by wildlife photographers to establish details on their intended subjects. Granted, kicking around the woods is a great way to spend a day. But, if you have limited time and need some specific wildlife images, a trail camera can be a big help.

Let’s use my land as an example. I have well over 100 acres for critters to live in. Where are they? What watering locations are they using? Is there a particular area where they are feeding? All of these questions can be answered with the application of good woodsman skills, but a trail camera can tell you more in less time.

Let’s say that I know a large whitetail buck is walking a particular old woods road. His tracks show me where he likes to get his water from. I can estimate his weight from the depression depth of the tracks, but how big are the antlers? Try figuring that one out with basic tracking and hunting skills.

A trail camera can capture a picture of my wandering buck and I will be able to see precisely how many points can be counted on the animal’s rack. Ah, how could it get any better than this? Well, believe it or not, it can. I recommend to members of World Photographers Organization that they used trail cameras to increase scouting for better wildlife photography.

Imagine that you are in your office making deals. As you talk on the speaker phone, read some briefs, and toy with your computer, you are shaken back to attention by a passing bear. What? A bear at your office? Not quite. The bear is on a live feed on your computer monitor. That’s right, your trail camera has a video feed and has locked onto a strolling bear. The trail cam sends a signal to a modem. Then the modem uses a cellular connection to send the video footage to your computer. You are talking about selling a hotel and watching a bear walk along your favorite game trail at the same time.

Okay, enough of setting the stage. Let’s take a look at the pros and cons of trail cameras. Our goal here is to look at them as tools for wildlife photographers who have limited time to spend in the field.

How Many Megapixels?

What kind of quality can you expect from the various types of trail cameras? Each camera has its own features and benefits.  Price is usually a factor in quality, and there is no exception here. If you want to spend top dollar, around $380, you can get a camera with a 7 mp rating. Want more? Spend $650 and you can get high definition. On the low end, you can spend $90 for a camera with 2 mp. The surveillance systems give 1.3 mp for $600. A still camera that provides 1.3 mp is $450. From what other owners have told me, cameras with 4 megapixels get the job done well and more megapixels does better. No surprise there.

How Tough?

How tough does a trail camera have to be? The quality of the lens is always important, as is the overall performance of a camera. Trail cameras are forced to endure some tough times. They get rained on, caught in high winds, bounced around, and worse. Look for a camera with a solid encasement.

One complaint I have heard of often is the attachment system between some cameras and their source of stability, which is usually a tree. Many users have experienced broken straps. I suggest that you look each camera you are considering over closely to see that their means of attachment will be dependable. You don’t want a $400 camera falling into a trail only to be walked on by a moose.

Won’t Someone Steal The Camera?

It could happen. Containers are made to protect cameras from pawing bears and such, but I doubt that any of the protection against humans would be effective. The best means of security is concealment. Get creative with some natural cover and make the camera housing melt into the background.

What’s The Difference Between IR Cameras and cameras with Flashes?

Price is the first difference that you may notice. It is common for cameras with white flash to cost less than infrared (IR) flash. The reason is simple. When a common flash fires, animals can see the light. When an IR flash fires, the beam is not visible to the animal. Smart, old animals will quickly learn to avoid areas that flash at them.

The distance that a flash covers varies greatly with trail cameras. An average distance is probably 35-40 feet. Some only reach out to 20 feet and others go out to 60 feet. The one I ordered covers 50 feet with an IR flash.

What Else Should I Look For In The Comparison Of Trail Cameras?

When I started looking for a good trail camera I figured it couldn’t be too tough for a pro photographer to pick out a viable camera. Let me tell you, trail cameras are not as easy to decide on as a Canon 5D MarkII.

My quest took me to 25 different trail cameras. Of these, there were 10 different brands. I had my work cut out for me.  A lot of information was available through Internet searches. The best overall comparison I found for trail cameras was at Cabelas. Check out the list below to see some other features to consider when buying a trail camera:

• Power Source
• How Many Batteries Are Needed?
• Does The Unit Offer Video Options?
• Can The Camera Be Powered By A Solar Panel?
• Does The Camera Have Built-In Memory? If so, how much? (16-32 mb is common).
• Will I Have A Viewer Built Into The Camera?
• What Is the Unit’s Memory Card Capacity?
• How Fast Can The Camera Fire?
• How Many Bursts Can The Camera Shoot?
• At What Temperature Ranges Can The Camera Function?
• What Do You Get As A Warranty?
• And, Of Course, How Much Does The Camera Cost?

There You Have It.

Well, there you have it. You can spend less than $100 or more than $700 for a camera. There are a few good ones available for less than $200. Until you start spending upwards of $225, don’t expect a lot of bells and whistles or long-term toughness.

I spent a lot of time compiling all of this information is my search for a suitable trail camera. Hopefully, you will find the data useful. If you enjoy wildlife photography, a trail camera might be your best next investment

Life is good when seen through a Canon® L lens.

R. Dodge Woodson

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/digital-photography-articles/trail-cameras-help-wildlife-photographers-1405233.html

About the Author

R. Dodge Woodson is a full-time internationally-known, best-selling author and photographer. He created the World Photographers Organization (WPO) as a serious resource for all photographers from point-and-shooters to pros. Photographers of all skill levels come to WPO to learn, to increase sales, and to take advantage of the extensive resources offered by WPO. Having been a pro photographer for more than 30 years and a full-time writer for 17 years, Dodge now feels it is time to share his tricks of the trade with up-and-coming freelancers. Woodson’s most recent photo book is: Maine Unseen: A Photographic Adventure That Few Witness.(Available at Amazon)

Popular gift ideas for hunters include equipment that is used in the field or for training. These include items such as magazines, GPS units, binoculars, spotting scopes, hats, gloves, t-shirts, camouflage clothing, knives, eyewear and more.

Tutorials, either in the form of books or dvds are always useful. For example, a duck hunter might learn a few tips from a book or video about how to clean wild ducks and geese.

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A third option is the gift of wild game foods. Practically every hunting enthusiast loves wild game of many types. This gift idea is perfect for hunter that cannot travel, but like to sample foods from around the world. Wild game foods include such delicacies as elk, moose, antelope, caribou, buffalo, pheasant, quail, goose, duck, turkey, frog legs or other unusual foods. These foods come as fresh roasts, smoked meats, jerky, sausages, burgers, pates, canned products, or other presentations.

Depending on the situation, shoppers may choose a generalized gift or pick gifts for a special interest such as bow hunting, big game hunting, waterfowl hunting, target shooting or other specialties. Each type of hunting will have a wide selection of special equipment, accessories and memorabilia.

When choosing gifts for hunters, its important to consider how the gift will arrive. In some cases the item will be given in person, which eliminates the need for shipping. For long distance gifts, its often best to buy items online and have them shipped directly to the hunter. Hunting-related gifts that are suitable for shipping include books, magazine subscriptions, DVDs, hats, gloves, t-shirts, camouflage clothing, eye wear, non-perishable game foods, gift cards and other items.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/outdoor-sports-articles/best-gifts-for-hunters-and-hunting-3768532.html

About the Author

For more hunting gifts, see Christmas Gifts For Hunters. For shoppers interested in hunting t-shirts, sweatshirts, hats, stickers or coffee mugs, visit Outdoors USA online store. Other sources of gifts and gift ideas include Nautical Art.